1821 was possibly the most inopportune time to begin a war for independence in Europe. A few years prior, Napoleon was crushed, and the European powers inaugurated a revived conservative status quo in the Congress of Vienna that endeavoured to prevent any further upsets to the continent’s power balance. No more shocks and a good dose of conservative rule. Then came the Greeks declaring independence.

Ned Rodger looks at the history of the West’s relationship with Syria and the rest of the Arab world dating back to the Treaty of Versailles.

A review of Dr Parthasarathi’s lecture on the European-Asian economic divergence.

In conversation with the History department’s latest addition

For our final excursion for the Historian, Alice and I made our way to Chetham’s to join the Friends of the library to see not its books but recent discoveries made about its objects, furniture and paintings. This visit was particularly poignant for me as I first visited Chetham’s last year for one of my first articles for the Historian, and so it is fitting that this should also be my last article for the magazine.

The tour began the best way tours should, with a glass of vino in the Baronial Hall. The library had been an accessible public space since it was altered from a College to a Library and Hospital in the 1650s, where the literate high and mighty visited read from its colossal textual collection, and the illiterate ‘dim wits’ came to view its cabinet of curios that were displayed in the Hall. Taxidermy, including an entire menacing alligator, had been hung from its walls, though now (only) stag heads crown the entrance wall.

The next room we visited was the warden’s room where the furniture symbolises the cumulative styles of various ages: the timber ceiling dated to the early fifteenth century is decorated with grotesque masks, and the Queen Anne walnut settee that rests on ball and claw feet and other chairs in the room date mostly from the eighteenth century. The refectory table against one wall upon which an oval shape is burnt into the wood was claimed to be the hoof print of the devil conjured by John Dee, Elizabeth I’s astrologer, alchemist and occultist, and warden of the Collegiate Church, now the Cathedral, from 1595.

A grotesque mask on the ceiling of the Warden’s Room, Chetham’s Library

From here we ascended a secret passageway to the first floor main library and the Reading Room. The walnut clock was given to Chetham’s in 1695 by Nicholas Clegg, a former pupil of Chetham’s school, and was made by Thomas Aynsworth of Westminster. Inset is a barometer, a later addition that was made by the esteemed instrument-maker John Patrick, reputedly the first barometer maker. Nowadays, it always pessimistically forebodes ‘rain’, though the clock, after restoration and recalibration, now works accurately to a few seconds gained or lost each month. Dominating the room is a central table surrounded by twenty-four Cromwellian type leather-backed chairs purchased in the 1650s. You might notice that the table is not flat, which is due to a broken beam in the room below. It is likely that the quirks observable in this room today were viewed by a succession of readers; a notable few include Benjamin Franklin, Charles Dickens, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

The Reading Room clock, Chetham’s Library

In one corner of the room an unusual carved bookshelf, part of Humphrey Chetham’s chained libraries, was recently found to have unconventional origins. It was revealed earlier in the year to have been made out of a rare early sixteenth-century bed made for Bolton gentleman, Adam de Hulton. The royal bed was the central feature of the innermost sanctum of the state apartments and was regarded as an extension of the king’s divine body. As such, a Paradise Bed was made for Henry VII and Elizabeth of York to commemorate their wedding in 1485. It is beautifully carved and depicts Adam and Eve in likeness of the King and Queen surrounded by the fruits of paradise symbolise fertility.

The headboard of the Paradise Bed, Chetham’s Library Chetham’s Library A for Adam de Hulton, Chetham’s Library H for Hulton, Chetham’s Library

Imitating the royal Paradise Bed, the Hulton’s Paradise Bed is decorated with intricate carvings of Adam and Eve and symbols of the Garden of Eden. For example, the fruit has religious connotations with the strawberry leaves representing the Trinity and the grapes symbolising the transubstantiation of Christ’s bloody during the Eucharist. A BBC 4 documentary on these findings is being produced for release later in the year.

William Hulton, one of the Library governors, donated the bed to Chetham’s in 1827 when it was remade into a bookshelf. Lucy Worsley’s series on The History of the Home has shown that the bed was enthusiastically surrendered to houseguests in the early modern era, and so it has been deduced that visitors to Hulton’s home such as Bonnie Prince Charlie would have slept in this bed-turned-bookshelf.

Furniture-maker George Shaw was inspired by medieval England and produced Paradise Beds and other furnishings in the medieval style, often passing off fakes as the real thing to unsuspecting dukes. Back on the ground floor and the final room in our tour, tables, chairs and cabinets are styled with symbols found on the Paradise Bed and the family crests of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. The question remains as to whether these furnishings are medieval originals, possibly being the oldest royal chairs in existence, or whether they are successful fakes produced by the enterprising nineteenth-century furniture maker, Shaw.

Despite these recent discoveries made at Chetham’s, the mystery that engenders the library persists more than ever. Furniture has defining social, political, economic and cultural associations, and Chetham’s houses some of the oldest and most symbolically important decoration in Manchester, if not in the country. If the books aren’t enough to tempt you, surely its extensive furniture collection and various curios will be adequate motivation for your visit or revisit.

At the beginning of the 5th century BCE, a hodgepodge of political strife, imperialistic occupation, and territorial conflict spurred the Ionian Revolt, a bloody rebellion on the coast of Asia Minor, now modern-day Turkey. The revolt lasted six years, during which the powers of Ionia and Persia both sustained significant losses. By its end, however, Persia emerged the unequivocal victor.

As the run-up to the 2024 UK general election begins in earnest, it is likely that we will see a rapid increase in hysteria surrounding Chinese and Russian interference in Britain’s electoral process. However, there is no doubt that the majority of this discourse will fail to connect this meddling with Britain’s own historical involvement in election interference, military interventions, and assassinations, in its attempt to preserve commercial and ideological interests abroad.

The 1960s were a period of cultural radicalism. During the civil rights era, counterculture became prevalent. From the hippie movement to London’s Notting Hill Carnival, cultural expression emerged not simply as a means of voicing oneself but also as a form of protest. Civil rights and music culture in America were notably intertwined and expressed in a range of genres such as folk and gospel through the voices of those including Jamila Jones, Pete Seeger and Mahalia Jackson. Martin Luther King Jr. would acknowledge songs of freedom as “playing a strong and vital role in our struggle” and their importance in establishing “a radiant hope, in the future, particularly in [the] most trying hours.”

Why are women always excluded from the retelling of historical events? This overlooked segment of the population plays a far greater role in rebellions and the resistance than we are led to believe. In the Algerian revolution women proved indispensable, holding greater importance to the resistance than their male counterparts. This article aims to rectify male-centric history by focusing on the historical impact of Algerian women.

Since 2016, Polish women have been engaged in a continuous battle against the politicians from Law and Justice, a right-wing populist party led by Jarosław Kaczyński. Today, as the party lost its bid for majority in the Polish parliament, many questions concerning women’s rights start to arise. Is the democratic opposition going to liberalise the abortion law? And how many more women are going to lose their lives until proper legislation is introduced?

The role of a queen for most of English history had, up until the Tudor period, been non-existent. No queen had ruled in her own right, their role was to serve as a woman should and be subservient to their husband. When Mary ascends in 1553, a new type of monarch is forged, and a new question arises. Does a queen gain an independence never before seen and serve her country as ruler, or remain within patriarchal values and place her country second to her husband? Since Mary’s reign was too short for her to truly answer this question on her own, it is her sister Elizabeth who truly defines what it means to be a queen.

Fresh from their outstanding 22-8 win against PGCE, History Netball are training hard for the remainder of their pre-Christmas matches. Currently third in the league, captain Charlotte Peacock is leading the team to victory after victory with only one loss so far in the season. She tells the Manchester Historian:

“Being netball captain this year is both a challenging and highly rewarding experience. Training each week requires planning to set fun new drills and tasks to enhance our team dynamics and performance in matches. After great success in the last academic year, we are continuing to perform well in matches, currently holding third place within the division. Our most impressive win to date saw a goal difference of 14 points. We hope to continue in our success in remaining matches, working our way up to the top spot! A close knit team of twenty-five players, it is a pleasure to play with such lovely girls every week.”

Although History had two teams last year, the concentration of talent into one team is clearly proving to be successful. They next play Richmond Park on Wednesday 23rd November, so watch this space for more team news!

In less than three months the Republic of Ireland will vote on a referendum that, if passed, could mark a watershed for female reproductive rights within the country. Merely an hour’s flight away, Ireland has some of the most restrictive abortion laws in Europe. Under the Eighth Amendment to the Irish Constitution a woman cannot Continue Reading

NASA chemist James Lovelock was trying to seek a way to detect life on distant planets without physically visiting them. Analysing planetary atmospheres, he arrived at a profound realisation about our world. He proposed that life on Earth does not merely exist within its environment but actively shapes and sustains it. The totality of life Continue Reading

Films are a highly impactful form of media, transporting the viewer into a new world and returning us to our rightful place in time minutely altered. Films inspire and provoke emotions and dreams in the audience through their complex themes and real-world understanding. This is even more true when films are based on true stories like that of Mel Gibson’s 2016 film Hacksaw Ridge. The true story of the American war hero Desmond Doss is brought to life through an incredible cast and an accurate portrayal of Desmond’s heroics. Doss is an unlikely war hero, however, because he is a ‘CO’. A Conscientious Objector to war and all forms of violence, Doss does not believe in taking the life of another human or in violence as a pathway to peace. Doss is often described as crazy, strange, and cowardly throughout the film as he resists peer and legal pressure from the American Military, who aggressively insist he must carry a weapon. Doss continues his rebellious attitude on the battlefield, saving lives as a combat medic while refusing to fight the enemy directly. 

When asked to pick up a rifle during combat training, Doss refuses to touch the weapon or any other object meant for destruction. The sergeant and captain attempt to get his fellow soldiers to turn on him and bully him out of the military by having group punishments for false accusations and orders disobeyed. In one scene, a fellow private attempts to bait him into violence by teasing Doss; however, he refuses to hit him back. He stays strong after a beating from his battalion and does not reveal those responsible to the sergeant as a display of trust and camaraderie. He remains true to himself in the face of immense peer pressure and instead commits to peace and amity. When this peer pressure fails to break Doss, the military attempts to have him dishonourably discharged and placed in a military prison for disobeying the orders of a superior. With help from his father, a veteran of WWI and a high-ranking colonel, Doss is freed and allowed to enter the war without bearing arms. A military court judge states, “Private Doss, you are free to run into the hellfire of battle without a single weapon to defend yourself”. Doss’s resistance to conforming to the violent hegemonic powers that surround him, pressuring him to become a thoughtless killer, enables him to remain committed to saving lives as a medic. Upon arrival on the battlefield, Doss and his battalion are continuously warned of the Japanese soldiers and the hell on earth that is Hacksaw Ridge.

In the film’s second half, Desmond’s heroics on the battlefield save seventy-five men, although Doss claims it was 50. During the battle on Hacksaw Ridge, the Japanese push back the Americans and Doss and his battalion are ordered to retreat. Doss disobeys this order and stays behind on the battlefield, recovering wounded men camouflaged by the darkness of night. Repeating, “please, Lord, help me get one more”, Doss saves the lives of dozens of injured soldiers. A particularly poignant moment in the film is when Doss comes across his wounded sergeant on the battlefield, bunkered behind a tree. Under fire from the Japanese soldiers, we see Doss touch a weapon for the very first time in the film. Doss uses a rifle and a sheet to create a makeshift sled for his Sergeant, who cannot walk. Running under fire from the Japanese, Doss saves his sergeant from certain death without having to harm another human. Until this moment, Desmond has rejected weapons and sworn against touching one. His entire journey to the battlefield was a fight with his superiors, who had the sole purpose of forcing a gun into his hands. When Doss finally grabs a weapon for the first time, it is used creatively to save a life rather than to take one. In the film’s final battle scene, the captain, who once held no respect for Desmond, stalls an attack. He tells Doss that he has gained immense respect from his fellow soldiers who once sought to force him to leave because of his beliefs. Those same soldiers do not want to go into battle without Doss by their side. His Captain tells him, “the men believe in how much you believe, and the others want a piece of it, and they won’t go up there without you”. Doss had become a beacon of hope and light in an otherwise bleak world because of his unwillingness to conform to the military’s expectations of him. He becomes a hero or, in his own words, a Conscientious Collaborator. 

Desmond Doss’s journey from an outsider in military training to a Medal of Honor recipient is rooted in his resistance to killing another person and his rebellious attitude toward the greater war. Upon returning home after the war, Desmond is the first CO to win the American Medal of Honor, a medal for bravery under gunfire. Hacksaw Ridge is an inspirational tale of resisting the status quo and staying true to one’s faith. Released in 2016, this film remains highly influential when considering the current events in the world today. Desmond Doss and his actions are moving and encouraging to everyone as we can carry his message forward: violence and killing do not answer the questions of peace.   

By Carter Price

If I were to say the Kraken, The Flying Dutchman, the Sirens or mermaids you would be forgiven for mistaking this for a Pirates of the Caribbean article! However, history is full of various sea myths and monsters many of which are still popular today. This article sets out to explore exactly what these stories are, where they came from and why they are so scary!

The Kraken is arguably the most famous sea monster, this giant squid is said to inhabit the coasts of Norway and Greenland (so no need to worry!) and at 50 feet in length it is no surprise why this sea monster is so well known. Some stories even state that the Kraken can easily be mistaken for a small island! Legend has it that the Kraken doesn’t like to be disturbed and is known for attacking ships by causing giant whirlpools! Stories of the Kraken can be traced as far back as the early 13^th Century and many historians believe that this myth originated from sightings of a giant squid. It is clear to see from the picture not only why this beast is so scary but why the myth of the Kraken is still popular today.

Wikimedia Commons

Another famous sea myth is that of The Flying Dutchman; a legendary ghost ship that never makes port and is doomed to sail the seas forever. Other stories say that the ship houses all those who have died at sea and descends on lost ships to take them over! The Flying Dutchman is presumed to have originated from 17^th Century folklore with actual sightings recorded in both the 18^th and 19^th Centuries.  However, there are those who suggest that the ship is simply an optical illusion, a mirage in the sea. But the popularity and spookiness of this legendary ship indicates that these people are in a minority and that there are still plenty of people who are extra cautious when sailing alone!

Tales of sea myths, creatures and monsters have no limits and are prevalent across the world. In Greek mythology the Sirens are said to be one of the most ferocious and beautiful creatures to haunt the sea. Legend has it that they are femme fatales, ranging from two to five in number, that use their enchanting music to attract sailors ashore, then they feast on their helpless prey. What makes the Sirens so dangerously scary is that they are impossible to resist and even though many sailors would have been warned, they simply couldn’t help themselves when they heard the Siren’s song. The appearance of the Sirens has caused much interest, they are said to be a mixture of women and birds. Whether you are scared by them or not, the next time you are approaching land and you hear beautiful music, cover your ears and run!

The final sea creature is perhaps is one that everyone will have heard of, mermaids. Stories of mermaids appear in many different cultures across the world from Europe to Asia with the first mermaid story appearing in Ancient Greek mythology in 1000 BC. Due to the many different cultural tales of mermaids their appearance varies but perhaps the most common is that they have the lower body of a fish and the upper body of a female human. Mermaids divide opinion as to whether they are good or bad, some folklore states that mermaids appear when events such as floods, shipwrecks or a drowning occurs and other stories suggest that they are good and beneficent. Regardless of this dispute, there can be no argument that mermaids are a classic sea creature and it is no surprise that many countries across the world have their own versions and stories of mermaids.

Wikimedia Commons

Overall, it is fascinating that variations of sea myths, monsters and creatures appear all over the world and go back centuries. I have my own view as to why these are so popular and that is because the sea is unknown and there are many various creatures that inhabit the sea, many of which are unknown, so when people see these animals/creatures they let their imagination take over and allow themselves to think that they have actually seen The Flying Dutchman or the Sirens and while this may be unlikely, these stories and myths are fascinating and I for one, hope that they stay popular for years to come!

Our podcast service is available to listen to on SoundCloud and Apple Podcasts! Make sure to like, and subscribe to be sure you keep up with all of our exciting new episodes.

Episode 5: Callum Discusses the Colombian Exchange

Episode 4: The Online Team Discuss Remembrance Day

Episode 3: Nicola Discusses Black History Month

Episode 2: Kerry Discusses Politics and History

Introduction to the Team! – October 2021: